Index | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 |
Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | Appendix | Literature Cited
Chapter Four: Results
Demographic Statistics
Descriptive statistics, including the total number of responses for each question, means, medians, standard deviations and frequency distributions for demographic data were calculated. Results are summarized in Table 4.1 below. The range of interviewee ages is 13 to 85, with a mean of 40.03 years. According to the standard deviation, 95% of interviewees fall between the ages of 24.29 and 56.37.
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Data
Variable Responses Mean Median Std
Dev
Age 271 40.33 38 16.036
Education 268 3.0522 3 1.2680
Land 272 1.69 1 0.7781
Tenure 272 2.08 2 0.7120
Migrant 272 3.82 4 0.6140
Job Categories
For purposes of analysis, five jobs categories were determined based on general characteristics of stated jobs. The more than 15 distinct jobs stated by interviewees were collapsed into five job categories, with one exception-housewives. Interviewees were placed in a category according to their first response to the question "What do you do for a living?". Many interviewees stated more than one form of income generation, their first response was used to categorize them. The five categories are 1) agriculture, cattle or fishing; 2) housewife; 3) skilled labor or small business; 4) tourism-related; and, 5) unemployed.
Category one includes workers whose work depends on the use of natural resources in the area. Economic security of workers in this category varies greatly, but the common factor among all individuals is a direct dependence on natural resources. The extremes of the category are owners of large tracts of land for hundreds of head of cattle or extensive agricultural practices and workers who search for employment opportunities on a daily basis.
Education
Education was collapsed into seven categories. These categories include 1) no formal education; 2) primary education begun but not completed; 3) primary education completed (six years); 4) secondary education begun but not completed; 5) secondary education completed (nine years); 6) university level or technical training begun but not completed; and, 7) university level or technical training completed. The mean level of education is 3.05, based on a two sample Student's T-test with a 95% confidence interval. The standard deviation of 1.26 indicates that 95% of interviewees have an educational background between Categories One and Four, or none to incomplete secondary attendance.
Women on average have higher educational levels than men. The mean education of women is 3.19 versus 2.92 for men, based on a two sample Student's T-test with a 95% confidence interval. The standard deviations for women and men are 1.28 and 1.25, respectively. The p-value of 0.08 with 265 degrees of freedom for education does not indicate significant differences between gender groups.
Between culture groups, ladinos have less education than Garifuna, based on two sample Student's T-test means of 2.92 and 3.19, respectively. The p-value for education differences between culture groups at a 95% confidence interval with 258 degrees of freedom is 0.08. This difference is not statistically different between culture groups.
Land Possession and Tenure
Questions about possession of land and land title (to ascertain tenure situation) were asked separately and are analyzed separately, although they are related. The land category is separated according to interviewees' responses to questions One "Do you have a parcel or area of land?" and Five "Do you use land that you do not own?" in Section II (Appendices B and C). The three categories for land possession are 1) interviewee owns land; 2) interviewee rents or borrows land; and, 3) some combination of categories one and two. The mean for Land indicates that renting or borrowing land is the most common situation for interviewees.
Obtaining information on land tenure was the purpose of question Four in Section II of the interview. The three categories are 1) holding dominio pleno, full title to their land, 2) holding dominio utile, legally recognized right to be on the land but not to sell it, or 3) neither of the two forms of legal land title. Answers were recorded according to responses given by interviewees. The mean of 2.08 indicates that most interviewees claim possession of dominio utile, the legal right to be on the land but not to sell it.
Migrant Status
Migrant categories describe amount of time living in the area around NPPI. Categories include the following 1) less than one year in the area; 2) one to five years in the area; 3) 5.1 to ten years in the area; and, 4) more than 10 years in the area. Many residents stated that they have lived in the area for their entire life, especially the older Garifuna interviewees. The mean migrant category was 3.82, the median was 4.00 and standard deviation was 0.61. These figures indicate that length of time in the area is generally greater than five years.
Behavior Component Statistics
Basic descriptive statistics for each of the three survey components, attitude (semantic differentials), expectations (Likert-like scale) and knowledge (questions) were also calculated. Responses to the semantic differentials and Likert-like statements were adjusted for analysis purposes so that positive and negative orientations are consistent, unlike the survey format where the orientation of statements is mixed.
Semantic Differentials
Semantic differentials were scored with numbers ranging from one to seven, where one represents the negative extreme and seven the positive extreme. The mean for each pair of bi-polar adjectives in both SDs is greater than six. This represents more positive attitudes than negative attitudes. The mean for the SD referring to NPPI is 6.39, this is less than the mean for the SD referring to conservation, which is 6.51. These averages indicate more positive attitudes towards conservation in general than towards NPPI. Summary statistics are in Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics for Semantic Differentials*
Adjective Pair Mean Standard Deviation
Attitude about NPPI (SD 1)a
Good-Bad 6.49 1.3084
Beneficial-Detrimental 6.53 1.2055
Large-Small 6.01 1.804
Necessary-Unnecessary 6.64 1.0839
Important-Unimportant 6.66 1.2010
Light-Dark 6.27 1.658
Successful-Unsuccessful 6.47 1.3689
Active-Inactive 6.50 1.3691
Positive-Negative 6.29 1.712
Strong-Fragile 6.28 1.660
Sweet-Sour 6.28 1.5704
Progressive-Backward 6.26 1.710
NPPI Average 6.39 0.8757
Attitude about Conservation (SD 2)a
Good-Bad 6.60 1.2075
Beneficial-Detrimental 6.58 1.2152
Large-Small 6.05 1.959
Necessary-Unnecessary 6.80 0.7471
Important-Unimportant 6.82 0.8168
Light-Dark 6.45 1.4159
Successful-Unsuccessful 6.53 1.3223
Active-Inactive 6.74 0.9151
Positive-Negative 6.38 1.5867
Strong-Fragile 6.42 1.5104
Sweet-Sour 6.47 1.3876
Progressive-Backward 6.28 1.745
Conservation Average 6.51 0.7920
* 95% confidence interval
a Values for responses range from 1 to 7, representing negative (1) to positive
(7) attitudes.
Likert-like Scales
The range of means for responses to these ten statements is 3.16 for statement ten to 4.08 for statements four and six. Statements one and ten exhibit the highest standard deviations in the group (1.06 and 1.05, respectively). The overall mean for expectations is 3.76 with a standard deviation of 0.40. Means and standard deviations of responses to Likert-like scale statements are summarized in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for Likert-like Scale Responses*
Mean Std Dev
Likert-like Statements
1. Protected area here will cause problems. 3.27 1.0616
2. Would earn money from tourists if protected area
here. 4.05 0.7117
3. Protected area will not affect my life
negatively. 3.83 0.8064
4. Protected area will improve life of children and
grandchildren. 4.08 0.6516
5. Tourists will cause problems. 3.64 0.7989
6. Area will do much to protect plants and
animals. 4.08 0.5922
7. Area will contribute to community poverty. 3.64 0.8382
8. I will earn more because of the protected area.
3.92 0.7375
9. Scarce animals will be more abundant if
protected area. 3.97 0.7307
10. Government projects like this never bring
positive change. 3.16 1.0525
Average for all 10 Likert-like scale statements 3.76 0.4044
* 95% confidence interval
a values for responses range from 1 to 5 and represent Disagree strongly (1), Disagree (2), Neutral (3), Agree (4), Agree Strongly (5).
Knowledge Questions
Knowledge scores for the nine questions in Section VI of the interview were calculated by assigning one point for each correct response. There were 16 correct responses. Interviewees were scored positively, i.e. if they answered incorrectly they were given a zero for that question or portion of a question, they did not lose points for incorrect answers. The possible range of responses was zero to 16. The actual range of responses was two to 16. The mean knowledge score was 10.28, which is 64.25%. The standard deviation of scores was 3.15.
Pearson's Correlation Tests
Each of the three survey instruments was tested for reliability, results are in Table 4.4 below. For the LS, statements were divided into positive and negative statements. The negative statements were numbers 1, 5, 7 and 10; positive statements were numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9. The sum of replies for each interviewee was calculated and a Pearson correlation alternate form reliability calculated. Reliability of LS is 0.27.
Table 4.4 Survey Instrument Reliability*
To calculate reliability for the SD and knowledge questions, responses were randomized based on computer-generated random numbers and split into two groups per instrument because there was no clear directional split. Split half reliability tests were then calculated for each instrument. Statements for the semantic differential on NPPI (One) were placed in the following groups: Group A--statements 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 9; Group B--statements 3, 5, 7, 10, 12 and 11. The reliability for this instrument is 0.68. The randomized statements for the semantic differential on conservation (SD Two) were placed in the following groups: Group A--statements 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 9; Group B--statements 3, 5, 7, 10, 11 and 12. The reliability for SD Two is 0.513. The randomized knowledge questions were placed in the following groups: Group A--questions 1, 3, 5, 6 and 8; and Group B--questions 2, 4, 7 and 9. Reliability for the knowledge instrument is 0.34. This range of reliability scores, from 0.27 to .06, indicates variability in responses to the instruments.
Tests for Difference and Variation
Two Sample Student's T-Tests
Two sample Student's T-test were conducted for comparisons of dependent variables, with the independent variables indicated for the research hypotheses, gender and culture as well as for additional independent variables, including tenure education, work in tourism, agreement with tourism, LS mean score, mean knowledge score, semantic differential mean scores. Results are summarized in Table 4.5 below. In this and all tables, culture indicates self-identified membership in either the Garifuna or ladino culture group, coded as a one or a two, respectively, in data analysis.
Table 4.5 Two Sample Student's T-Test Results for Gender and Culture*
Dep Indep n Mean Std
Dev P-Value(a T-Value DF
Variable Variable
Tenure Culture 0.033
Ladino 136 1.985 0.720 -2.14 269
Garífuna 136 2.169 0.694
Gender
0.93 -0.09 269
Women 136 2.081 0.706
Men 136 2.074 0.721
Education
Culture 0.082 -1.75 258
Ladino 135 2.92 1.38
Garífuna 133 3.19 1.14
Gender
0.082 1.75 265
Women 133 3.19 1.28
Men 135 2.92 1.25
Work in
Culture 0.0000 -4.92 177
Tourism Ladino 136 1.081 0.274
Garífuna 136 1.390 0.680
Gender 0.12 -1.58 219
Women 136 1.184 0.389
Men 136 1.287 0.654
Agree w/
Culture 0.19 -1.33 165
Tourism Ladino 125 1.976 0.154
Garífuna 133 2.030 0.443
Gender
0.19 -1.31 160
Women 127 1.976 0.152
Men 131 2.031 0.446
Mean SD
Culture 0.0002 3.85 218
1 (NPPI) Ladino 136 6.589 0.612
Garífuna 136 6.19 1.04
Gender 0.64 -0.47 263
Women 136 6.365 0.803
Men 136 6.414 0.945
Mean SD
Culture 0.16 1.40 265
2 (Cons) Ladino 136 6.576 0.737
Garífuna 136 6.442 0.841
Gender 0.34 -0.95 269
Women 136 6.463 0.799
Men 136 6.555 0.785
Mean
LS Culture 0.0001 4.10 261
Score Ladino 136 3.862 0.356
Garífuna 136 3.667 0.427
Gender 0.98 -0.03 269
Women 136 3.764 0.395
Men 136 3.765 0.416
Mean Kno
Culture 0.0000 5.93 250
Score Ladino 136 11.35 2.52
Garífuna 136 9.21 3.37
Gender 0.0000 -4.13 256
Women 136 9.51 3.40
Men 136 11.04 2.70
* 95% Confidence Interval
There is a significant difference (p = 0.03) in land tenure status between culture groups. The mean of 2.16 for ladinos indicates that this group is more likely to fall in category three, or not have any form of legal title to their land. Garifuna interviewees are more likely to possess dominio utile, indicated by the mean of 1.98, which is between categories one and two.
Work in some capacity connected with tourism is significantly different between culture groups (p = 0.00). The mean of 1.39 indicates that Garifuna interviewees self-identified themselves more than ladinos as holding a tourism-associated job. No ladino offered tourism-related employment as a first response to Question 12 in Section II, "Do you work in tourism in some capacity?". Opinions regarding agreement with tourism in the area (Question 13 Section II) did not differ significantly different between either culture or gender group.
Responses to semantic differential one, attitude about NPPI, exhibit significant differences between culture groups (p = 0.00). Ladinos stated more positive attitude about NPPI as exhibited by the mean of 6.58 than did the Garifunas, with a mean of 6.19. The difference between genders for this instrument was not significant. There was no significant difference in attitude about conservation, as assessed by the second semantic differential, for either culture or gender group.
The average of scores for the ten LS statements differed significantly between culture groups (p = 0.00). The mean of 3.86 for ladinos versus 3.66 for Garifuna in this two sample Student's T-test indicates that ladinos as a group have more positive expectations for NPPI. There was not a significant difference (p = 0.98) between genders for the mean score of this instrument.
Mean knowledge scores between both cultural and gender groups were also significantly different. In both cases p = 0.00 at 95% confidence interval. The comparison of culture groups indicates that ladinos (mean is 11.35) scored higher than Garifuna (mean is 9.21) on the knowledge questions. Between genders, men scored higher than women with a mean score of 11.04 while women had a mean of 9.51 on the knowledge questions. The standard deviation for women (3.40) was higher than for men (2.70) for these questions, indicating more variation among the women.
General Linear Models
General linear models (GLM) using analysis of variance (ANOVA) were run for each of the three survey instruments to elicit indications of which variables have impacts on attitude, expectations and knowledge and how these variables interact. Significant results (p <0.51) were also tested using Kruskal-Wallis analysis as a verification of differences. The descriptive categories in these tables are the same as in previous tables.
The first ANOVA GLM run on SD One controlled for age and compared gender, culture group, job category, education, land and tenure. In this model, all else being equal, culture explains variation (p = 0.00) in SD One scores. In the second ANOVA GLM for SD One, age was controlled for and culture group, job category and education were compared. In this model, culture again explains variation (p = 0.00).
The ANOVA GLM run for SD Two controlled for age and compared gender, culture group, job category, education, land and tenure. Not one of the variables explained differences in instrument scores. No other models were run for SD 2 since none of the variables had a small p-value. Results of the GLM ANOVA tests are summarized in Table 4.6 below.
Table 4.6 Results of ANOVA General Linear Model Tests*
Dep Variable CovariateTested Indep
Var P-Value for Variable(s) Tested
SD 1 Avg Age 0.872
Gender 0.740
Culture 0.001
Job Category 0.401
Education 0.475
Land 0.403
Tenure 0.834
SD 1 Avg Age 0.969
Culture 0.001
Job Category 0.364
Education 0.484
SD 2 Avg Age 0.441
Gender 0.101
Culture 0.263
Job Category 0.420
Education 0.201
Land 0.695
Tenure 0.711
Likert Scale Avg Age 0.894
Gender 0.924
Culture 0.000
Job Category 0.857
Education 0.027
Land 0.182
Likert Scale Age 0.927
Avg Culture 0.000
Education 0.025
Land 0.190
Likert Scale Culture 0.000
Avg Education 0.009
Land 0.183
Kno Score Age 0.007
Avg Gender 0.000
Culture 0.000
Job Category 0.163
Education 0.034
Land 0.015
Kno Score Age 0.009
Avg Gender 0.000
Culture 0.000
Education 0.010
Land 0.017
* 95% confidence interval
Three ANOVA GLMs were created for the LS. The first controlled for age and compared gender, culture group, migrant status, education and land. All else being equal, this model indicates that culture (p=0.00) and education (p = 0.02) explain variation in the average score for expectations about NPPI. The second ANOVA GLM for the LS controlled for age and compared culture, education and land. Culture (p = 0.00) and education (p = 0.02) explain variation in average scores for the LS. The third ANOVA GLM for the LS did not control for age and compared culture, education and land. In this model, culture (p = 0.00) and education (p = 0.00) again explain significant variation in scores.
Considering the knowledge scores, an ANOVA GLM was run controlling for age and comparing gender, culture group, job category, education and land. In this model, age (p = 0.00), gender (p = 0.00), culture (p = 0.00) and education (p = 0.03) explain variation in scores. A second ANOVA GLM was run for knowledge score, controlling for age and comparing gender, culture group, education and land. In this model all independent variables are significant.
Kruskal-Wallis Tests
Kruskal-Wallis tests were conducted to determine which of the two independent variables for the research hypotheses, gender and culture, impacted scores on the three survey instruments. A summary of the gender and cultural variables tested with Kruskal-Wallis analysis is in Table 4.7. Applying culture group to SD One, the Kruskal-Wallis test corroborates the significance of this variable in score differences. The average ranks for this test score also indicates that Garifuna interviewees indicate less positive attitudes towards NPPI than do ladinos. With a Kruskal-Wallis test, as in an ANOVA GLM, gender does not explain differences in scores on SD 1. The Kruskal-Wallis test for attitude about conservation (SD Two) indicated no significant impact based on gender or culture. Again, this confirms the ANOVA GLMs.
Expectations, measured by LS scores, are impacted by culture group (p = 0.00) but not by gender, according to the Kruskal-Wallis test. These results from Kruskal-Wallis analysis again confirm the ANOVA GLM tests.
Knowledge scores are again seen to be impacted by culture and gender group according to Kruskal-Wallis tests (p = 0.00 in both cases). The average rank scores indicate that Garifuna and women have lower average knowledge scores than do ladinos and men.
Table 4.7 Kruskal-Wallis Test Results of Independent Variables for Hypotheses*
Dep Var Indep Var Adjusted P-Value
SD 1 Avg Culture 0.004
SD 1 Avg Gender 0.173
SD 2 Avg Culture 0.453
SD 2 Avg Gender 0.168
Likert Scale Avg Culture 0.000
Likert Scale Avg Gender 0.906
Kno Score Avg Culture 0.000
Kno Score Avg Gender 0.000
* 95% confidence interval a significant P-Values in boldface type
Results of Kruskal-Wallis tests for differences corroborate the significant differences highlighted in ANOVA GLMs between gender groups for mean knowledge scores. These tests also corroborate the significant differences between culture groups for the means of SD One, mean LS and knowledge scores.
Independent variables collected in interviews were analyzed with Kruskal-Wallis tests as well. The summary of these tests is in Table 4.8. Kruskal-Wallis tests for these variables indicate that job category One (agriculture/cattle/fish) impacts attitude score for SD One. Another non-hypothesis independent variable, land, was found to impact scores on SD Two. Additionally, LS scores are impacted by education Category One, no formal education. Interviewees in the lowest education category hold the most negative expectations for NPPI. Finally, knowledge scores are different according to land category groups. Those who own land (Category One) had higher knowledge scores than those who borrow or rent land (Category Two), but lower scores than those who both own and rent or borrow land (Category Three).
Table 4.8 Kruskal-Wallis Test Results for Additional Variables*
Dep Var Indep Var Adjusted P-Value
SD 1 Avg Education 0.741
SD 1 Avg Land 0.187
SD 1 Avg Job Category 0.028
SD 2 Avg Education 0.981
SD 2 Avg Land 0.049
SD 2 Avg Job Category 0.429
Likert Scale Avg Education 0.041
Likert Scale Avg Land 0.381
Likert Scale Avg Job Category 0.052
Kno Score Avg Education 0.244
Kno Score Avg Land 0.006
Kno Score Avg Job Category 0.002
* 95% Confidence Interval
a statistically significant p-values in boldface type
Conclusion
The aggregate of statistically significant differences or explanation of variation among dependent variables is summarized in Table 4.9 Summary of Differences between Dependent Variables by Gender and Culture. This table indicates the strength of culture among the different dependent variables. Two Sample Student's T-tests which did not indicate significant differences between gender or culture groups and dependent variables did not exhibit significant differences using the Kruskal-Wallis test for difference.
Table 4.9 Summary of Differences by Gender and Culture
Dep Var Indep Var Significant Difference
SD 1 (NPPI) Gender none
SD 1 (NPPI) Culture 1 2 3
SD 2 (Cons) Gender none
SD 2 (Cons) Culture none
Likert Scale Gender none
Likert Scale Culture 1 2 3
Knowledge Gender 1 2 3
Knowledge Culture 1 2 3
= Student's T-test = Kruskal-Wallis Test for Differences =ANOVA General Linear Model
The survey component that produced the most statistically significant results for difference was knowledge, with six statistically significant results. The Two Sample Student's T-tests, ANOVA GLMs and Kruskal-Wallis tests consistently indicate that culture groups are significantly different in their scores and that culture explains variation in scores. Gender groups scored significantly different on knowledge questions, indicating that gender explains variation in knowledge scores.
There are three statistically significant differences between groups
for expectations. Culture explains differences and variation between groups.
The least amount of difference and variation occurs in the attitude component.
There were no statistically significant tests for gender in this component.
Attitudes about NPPI were statistically different between culture groups
and this variable explains variation with all three tests applied. This
did not hold true for attitudes about conservation, where no differences
or variation were statistically significant between culture or gender group
membership. In summary, culture is a consistent variable for the explanation
of differences in attitude, expectations and knowledge. Gender explains
differences and variation in knowledge scores only. The number of tests
which indicate differences along cultural lines is nine where as for gender
it is only three. Implications of these results for potential community
participation in NPPI are discussed in Chapter Five.
Read
Chapter Five.
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