"Mexico encompasses a wealth of natural features - varied landscapes, vegetation and wildlife - that have enormous tourism potential" [Boo,1990:109].
3.1. The Nature of Tourism in Mexico.
Mexico's popularity as a tourist destination is growing at an overwhelming pace, its annual growth rate exceeding the world average . In terms of international tourism receipts Mexico received 1.4% of tourists in 1992, and has been ranked as the eighth most popular destination in the world [Galindo Blanco, 1993:19, Mader, 1997]. Tourism contributes 3.2% to GNP (1993), a large proportion of this figure coming from the South Eastern state of Quintana Roo, with Cancún alone generating 25% of Mexico's tourism GDP [Ceballos Lascurain, 1996:1] [Figure 8 Tourist Arrivals Mexico 1929 - 1925 and Figure 9 Map of Mexico]. In the past 10 years there has been a shift, in accordance with changing world trends, towards ecotourism. Despite this shift, and the many natural and cultural attractions that the country has to offer, Mexico still enjoys the reputation of what Weaver describes as a 3S tourist destination: 'Sand, Sea and Sun' [Weaver in Cater, 1995:169].
Tourism in Mexico dates from the 1940s, and has become the countries second largest export earner after oil, providing an important source of employment and large amounts of foreign exchange [Stansfield, 1980:227]. Acapulco became fashionable as the "sun and fun" [Boo,1990:107] resort of the rich following the end of World War II and, in the space of a decade, tourism revenues tripled [Burford, 1995:1]. Stansfield suggests that this huge increase in the tourist industry was attributable to a number of factors: Firstly, during the presidency of Miguel Aléman , Mexico's transport system increased greatly in size and quality. At the same time the political stability of the country dramatically improved and Mexico consequently saw an increase in international tourist arrivals. This led to a massive boost in tourist receipts which encouraged private investment and furnished the government with the necessary funds for the improvement of tourist infrastructure and amenities [Stansfield, 1980:228].
Figure 8: Mexico's Tourist Arrivals
Year Tourist Arrivals
Source: Burford 1995.
3.2. Cancún. An Ecological Disaster?
In the late 1960s it was recognised that Acapulco was no longer the fashionable resort it had once been. Tourism trends were changing and furthermore, environmental degradation had occurred as it surpassed its carrying capacity. As part of a long-term national development strategy aimed at diversifying and expanding Mexico's economic base and conforming to ideas of decentralisation, the Mexican government began to look at the idea of developing a new major tourist facility [Bosselman, 1978:39]. Following two years of extensive location and market research, much of which was carried out using computer technology, Antonio Enríquez Savignac, a researcher from the Banco de Mexico S.A., proposed that a new mega-resort be built on the north eastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsular. The decision was made to start developing a 21 kilometers strip of flat land called Cancún ['Pot of Gold' in Mayan] lying some 100 metres off the shores of what is now recognised as the state of Quintana Roo . The territory of Quintana Roo [5,350km2] was at this time mainly covered by tropical forest and was home to a relatively small indigenous population of 45,000 [Schjetnan, 1978:47]. Industry was based on small scale traditional agriculture and fishing and communication networks in the region were poor, the Maya of the Yucatán Peninsular remaining proudly disdainful of the control from the country's capital.
The decision to develop Cancún was an easy choice. Cancún possessed all the factors that would help create the ultimate Caribbean paradise resort: an abundance of white sand beaches, the turquoise waters of the Caribbean to the east and the clear waters of the beautiful Nichuputé lagoon to the west. The region possessed a wealth of natural beauty with virgin rainforest and marine ecosystems and the added interest of ancient Mayan archaeological sites. It was thus chosen for the new development, receiving funding and presidential support.
In April of 1971, Mexico's President, Luis Echeverria Alvarez, authorised the Ministry of Foreign Relations to acquire the island and surrounding areas and to begin development of the resort. The project was financed by a $22 million development package from the Inter American Development Bank and the World Bank who emphasised that their interests in the project stemmed from a desire to help the people in the region to develop their territory and not simply to make money by means of large scale exploitative tourism [Bosselman, 1978:39]. The development was managed by the purposely created development agency INFRATUR [later renamed FONATUR, Fondo Nacional de Fomento al Turismo] who stressed the importance of decentralising the tourist industry and, furthermore, expressed the sentiment that Cancún would prove to be an excellent way to capture much needed foreign exchange. This income would be used to modernise one of Mexico's most underdeveloped states:
Cancún was envisioned - not as another Acapulco! - but as a new town, a new development, born out of the necessity to conquer a region, totally forgotten by the rest of the country [Sanchez, 1977:500].
Another reason behind this huge development was the concern that Mexico was lacking a tourism market which would sustain the natural environment. According to architect Felix Sanchez, [1977:500] "Fortunately enough the decision to develop here also showed a responsibility towards the natural ecosystem". By the mid 1970's Cancún had grown from a small fishing village [Puerto Juárez] of 40 to a resort of 40,000, attracting a larger flow of tourists each year [Schjetnan, 1978:496]. More than 25 years since development began, Cancún has become known as the concrete jungle, attracting more than 2 million people a year [Unijet, 1997]. In 1995 it represented the largest economic activity in Quintana Roo, accounting for over 70% of the states GDP and attracted US$3 billion [Ceballos Lascurain,1996:1]. It is characterised by the holiday brochures as 'cosmopolitan', 'Mexico's Caribbean playground', a 'purpose built holiday paradise' and a 'world-class resort' [Figure 10 La Zona Hotelera, Cancún]. Behind this quintessential tourist image and the proven economic benefits of this successful industry, the environment of Quintana Roo in particular, has had to come to terms with the reality of Cancún's over exposure to the lucrative tourist market. The unchecked development of the tourist industry has surpassed the environmental, and consequently aesthetic, carrying capacity, the result being that the industry has "extensively damaged the lagoon, obliterated sand dunes, led to the extinction of varying species of animals and fish and destroyed the rainforest which surrounds Cancún" [Cancún case, 1996:2]. These problems are not new. Whilst developers continued to sing the praises of the 'mega' resort, environmental problems were hidden as Cancún's developers declared conservation areas and recreational parks. Despite these declarations, large sections of lagoons, swamps, wetlands and mangroves have been filled in to meet the demands for new land and, large sections of rainforest have been concreted over to make way for new road development [Figure 11 Landfilling]. As early as 1977, the remaining lagoons began to show signs of pollution and environmentalists expressed their concern at the rate of deforestation [Figure 12 Algae Infested Lagoon]. The effect of this development has been catastrophic for the local marine life, the breeding patterns of marine turtles have been extensively disrupted and fish and shellfish have been disappearing from local waters at an alarming rate. Oceanologist Arturo Mösso Aranda [SEMARNAP - Secretaría del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca] suggests that as nothing has been done to slow this environmental destruction, the reef, in particular, is in imminent danger of destruction "At this rate there will be nothing left of the reef at Punta Nizuc in 5 years time" [Personal interview - 1996]. As a result of these and similar concerns, an agreement was signed by President Carlos Salinas de Gotari, in 1994, that created conservation zones to ensure that future tourist development pays due respect to the natural environment. The agreement involved the creation of 45 zones in the Cancún-Tulum corridor in which tourism development would be severely restricted. The size of development units will be limited and the density of projects will be reduced to between 5 to 25 rooms per acre, resulting in space-efficient low density hotels, which will have a less detrimental effect on the natural surroundings [Cancún Case, 1996]. More recently, in June 1996, the Mexican government designated two areas of Quintana Roo as protected areas. Banco Chinchorro, a marine ecosystem that has of a set of reefs that form an ellipse enclosing four cays, 30 km offshore from Xcalak in south east Quintana Roo was declared part of the Biosphere Reserve program and, further north, another part of the reef, near Puerto Morelos, just south of Cancún, was declared the National Marine Park 'Arrecife Maya' [Steeb, 1996].
3.3. The Growth of Environmental Awareness in Mexico.
Whilst these trends in tourism were altering the face of tourism in Mexico, conservation and sustained use of land resources was slowly being recognised as an important factor for the future of the country's development. Between the 1940s and 1970s Mexico's governments had followed a rigorous development strategy which favoured industrialisation, urbanisation and rapid population growth. This resulted in an increase in environmental pollution and the over-exploitation of Mexico's natural resources; "Through its development program, the Mexican government was a principal agent in the country's environmental decline" [Simonian, 1995:111]. Presidents often hinted at their concerns for conservation but rarely put any emphasis on creating environmental laws and policies. It was left to a number of individuals to prove to the nation that conservation and development must go hand in hand for a sustainable future. Enrique Beltrán was one of these individuals. At the first world conference on National Parks held in Seattle in 1962 he strongly recommended that Mexico adopt a system of zoning in its protected areas, as a way of conserving the country's natural wealth whilst using it at the same time in a sustainable manner. The outer zone would represent a general use zone for industry and relaxation purpose [tourist facilities would be allowed in this zone]. A second zone would be open to the public to visit but no provision of amenities would be made. The third zone would be designed for scientific research and access to this area would be limited to qualified people and groups for educational purposes. Miguel Alvarez de Toro agreed with the ideas of Beltrán's and also supported the idea of unzoned national parks. Simonian writes: "[Alvarez de Toro] supports the creation of national parks because he believes they fulfil a legitimate function by protecting areas of great scenic beauty for the enjoyment of tourists" [Simonian, 1995:149]. Swiss environmentalist Gertrude Blom is not so supportive of the development of tourism in Mexico's protected areas:
I want to declare emphatically that I would like to leave these places as I knew them the first time, without people, without homes, peace and silence..... I don't like the tourism solution, but the economists don't want to leave a place without economic gains. If it helps the neighbouring people of these places, the project will have its positive side. This course would be better than total destruction [Simonian, 1995:155].
The work of these three environmentalists strongly contributed to the recognition in the 1970s that a new type of development was required, one that would base itself on the natural environment , yet would not compromise the importance of conserving the natural resources for generations to come. In this decade the Mexican government finally accepted that something must be done to combat the severe ecological problems and consequently, in 1974, Mexico created its first biosphere reserves in Montes Azules, Mapimí and La Michilía. The biosphere concept resulted from the UNESCO Conference on Rational Conservation of the Resources of the Biosphere, in 1968 and formed part of the Man and the Biosphere Program. A reserve have three complementary roles: conservation, logistic and development roles. Furthermore, a reserve consists of three zones, as Enrique Beltrán had previously suggested: a transition zone, in which the sustainable use of resources by locals is permitted, a buffer zone, in which all activities are severely limited and a conservation zone which are strictly for the conservation and research purposes only. It was recognised that these reserves have a large potential for tourism based on the natural environment and ecotourism.
3.4. The Potential for Ecotourism in Mexico.
Mexico has many unique natural resources which must be given government protection in either national parks, or the more recently accepted idea; biosphere reserves. In a scientific study on biological diversity carried out in 1986 by botanist Russell Mitlemiemier, Mexico was identified as one of six 'mega' diversity countries due to its immense biological diversity [Boo,1990:110]. It has over 30,000 species of flowering plant, 1,000 species of birds, 2,500 different species of butterflies and the worlds richest herpetofauna, boasting 957 species [Ceballos Lascurain,1994:10]. In addition to this unique wealth in terms of biodiversity, Mexico is a country that has a tropical climate, beautiful white palm fringed sandy beaches, bordered by the Caribbean in the South East and the Pacific in the West. Colonial towns are scattered throughout the country which, furthermore, is rich in Aztec and Mayan architecture and culture. There is, also, a tourist infrastructure already in place. It has, therefore, been suggested that Mexico is ideally suited to ecotourism development. In an assessment of the potential for ecotourism in the Caribbean basin, David Weaver comments:
Of any mainland (Caribbean) destination, the most promising ecotourism prospects probably belong to Mexico, given its political stability, increasing prosperity, diversity and size, proximity to the USA and the emergence of an environmentally aware middle-class [Weaver in Cater 1995:174].
These areas of outstanding natural beauty, however, will only provide an ideal base for ecotourism development if correctly managed and developed. It is therefore important that there is an understanding of the nature of protected areas in Mexico, their management and potential usage.
3.5 Protected Areas in Mexico.
First steps towards the implementation of nature tourism in Mexico came during the past twenty years with the recognition of the possible uses of the resources in protected areas, such as biosphere reserves. Mexico has 89 protected areas that cover a total area of 10 million hectares, equivalent to 5% of the national territory [Steeb, 1996]. National parks represent the largest segment of protected areas [44%] followed by biosphere reserves, which represent 18% of the total land protected in Mexico. There are 9 biosphere reserves and 11 special biosphere reserves and it is here that the potential for ecotourism in Mexico lies [Simonian,1995] [Appendix 3 Biosphere Reserves in Mexico].
Further progress was made in 1988 when the government created "The General Law for Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection" which outlines the possible benefits of nature tourism in national parks and biosphere reserves, indicating a government commitment to actively promoting this type of tourism. More recently this commitment has been formulated into a specific program known as 'The Tropical Forest Action Plan' [PROAFT]. The program, created last year by the Mexican government, aims to conserve the natural resources of tropical forests but at the same time find a solution to rural underdevelopment of these regions. One of Proaft's main areas is that of ecotourism which, like the other ventures that Proaft aims to introduce, will be managed by tripartite alliances . Currently 27 tripartite alliances have been established in south east Mexico, including two ecotourism ventures; El Eden and Tulum in Quintana Roo.
In 1990 American environmentalist Elizabeth Boo carried out a study of the pitfalls and potential for ecotourism in Mexico's protected areas. Tourists arriving at Mexico City airport were asked why they had chosen Mexico for their holiday destination. Amongst the top reasons for the trip were sightseeing, 38%, cultural history, 23% and archaeology 18%. When asked how important parks and protected areas were in the decision to visit Mexico. 24% responded that they were the main reason and a further 18% answered that they were important and had influenced their decision. Another 18% said that parks and protected areas were somewhat important [Boo, 1990: 114-115]. It was clear from the results gained by the survey that there was a large potential market for tourism in protected areas, that is to say, tourism based on the natural environment.
3.6. Conclusion.
Having seen the negative, predominately, environmental effects that unchecked
tourist development in Cancún has had and considering the nature
of changing fashions in tourism and the sustainable development ideology,
Mexico has begun to look at alternative possibilities to mass tourism. Protected
areas, and in particular Biosphere Reserves are now a large feature of Mexico's
environment and there is a recognition that ecotourism is ideally suited
to Mexico's to these diverse ecosystems. Quintana Roo has similarly established
its position as the leading Mexican state in terms of tourism revenues,
and has a number of important biosphere reserves and national parks. In
the past decade both government and private individuals have recognised
that ecotourism projects are viable alternatives for the future development
of the state. The final chapter will look at a selection of these new projects
and assess just how far they go to meeting the criteria for ecotourism outlined
in chapter two. Are these projects true examples of ecotourism - or are
they further examples of marketing rhetoric to 'eco' sell the same old Cancún
package?
Ecotourism : Reality or Rhetoric: Ecotourism Development in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico is a critical analysis by Natasha Kate Ward. Author retains copyright; all rights reserved. Contact Natasha Kate Ward via email: natasha_ward@hotmail.com
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