| Canaima National Park is located in the south-east
of Venezuela
in Bolívar State close to the borders with Brazil and
Guyana. The park protects the north-western section of the Guayana
Shield, an ancient geological formation shared with Brazil,
the Guianas and Colombia.
The park was established in 1962 with an area of 10,000km2,
but its size was increased to 30,000km2 in 1975 in order to
safeguard the watershed functions of its river basins. At that
time it became the world's largest national park, its area being
equivalent to that of Belgium in Europe, or larger than the
State of Maryland. In recognition of its extraordinary scenery
and geological and biological values, the park was conceded
World Heritage Status in 1994, forming one of a select list
of 126 natural and natural-cultural World Heritage Sites worldwide.
Canaima actually fulfilled all four of UNESCO's criteria for
qualification as a World Heritage property. Ironically, the
name of the park, which derives from the novel "Canaima"
by Venezuelan author Rómulo Gallegos, means "spirit
of evil" in the language of the Pemón, local inhabitants
of the park.
A unique landscape formed from the oldest
rocks on Earth
The best-known feature of Canaima National Park are its characteristic
flat-topped mountain formations known as tepuis from the local
indigenous name. These mountains were popularised in several
novels from the early part of this century, many of them inspired
by the 19th Century British botanist Everard Im Turn who lectured
throughout Europe on his return. The most widely recognised
of these novels is The Lost World by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle,
author of the Sherlock Holmes novels, which describes the ascent
of a South American plateau inhabited by prehistoric plants
and dinosaurs.
The geological history of the area is only superficially understood.
There are three main geological formations. The oldest is an
underlying igneous-metamorphic basement formed some 1.2-3.6
billion years ago whilst South America was joined to Africa
as the supercontinent Gondwanaland. Between 1.6 and 1 billion
years ago, this was overlain with a sedimentary cover. The first
of these formations is too deeply buried to be visible within
the park, but second (known as the Roraima Group) forms the
basis of the area's extraordinary topography (Huber 1995). It
consists of quartzite and sandstone strata which were probably
laid down in shallow seas or large inland lakes (Briceño
et al. 1990) during the Pre-Cambrian period. Lastly, during
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic times magma repeatedly penetrated the
existing sediments forming intrusive rocks which are typically
diabases, and to a lesser extent granites.
The tepui formations, not unlike those found in the deserts
of northern Arizona, came into being by a process of erosion
of the surrounding lands over millions of years. The tepuis
are sandstone massifs, and it is thought that what are today
mountains once formed harder or less faulted strata which were
more resistant to erosion.
There is an impressive array of different soil types. The low
mineral content of the parent rocks of the Guayana Shield, the
high rates of weathering that occur in tropical climates and
the age of the sediments has produced soils which are generally
acid and nutrient poor. Only where there are more basic igneous
intrusions are the soils capable of supporting luxuriant forests
or cultivation.
One third of the plants are found nowhere else on the planet
The vegetation of the national park is quite strikingly divided
between the mainly savanna-forest mosaic of the Eastern Sector
of the park, known as the Gran Sabana, and evergreen forest
in the west. It is still not clear what causes this difference
and, in particular, how the savanna originated. Whilst some
authors are inclined to believe the savanna to be a product
of a rainfall shadow caused by the eastern tepuis, others consider
the formation to be entirely anthropogenic, being a product
of repeated burning by indigenous peoples. The truth undoubtedly
lies in a combination of the two (Schubert and Huber 1989).
The presence of 107 plant species found only in these savannas
(Picón 1995), demonstrates that they have existed at
least long enough to allow new species to form.
The savannas are dominated by grasses, typically Trachypogon
plumosus and Axonopus pruinosus, and fire-resistant sedges like
Bulbostylis paradoxa which forms a small cushion on which it
raises itself above the ground to avoid the worst of the savanna
blazes. Stunted shrubs like Palicourea rigida are also found
at low densities. The high meadows, on the other hand are composed
of typically Guayanan herbs such as the broadleaved species
of the genus Stegolepis, a member of the Rapataceae, a family
found only in the Guayana Shield and with one genus in West
Africa; members of the Xyridaceae and Eriocaulaceae are also
typical. The shrublands are usually composed of shrubs and bushes
up to two metres tall, most of which are hard-leaved (coriaceous)
and pertaining to several genera including Bonnetia and Clusia.
The evergreen montane forests are often humid and luxuriant
and include tree species of the families Leguminosae, Lauraceae,
Vochysiaceae, Myristicaceae, Rubiaceae, Burseraceae and Annonaceae.
The tepui tops themselves are sometimes forested, with dwarf
forests with members of theaceae (particularly Bonnetia roraimae),
Araliaceae, Ericaceae, Compositae, Melastoataceae and Rubiaceae
being prominent. In other cases, meadows prevail on the tops,
typically with the composite Chimantea. One feature of these
extremely nutrient poor environments is the presence of carnivorous
plants, such as pitcher plants Heliamphora and sundews Drosera,
which trap and digest insects as a supplement to mineral uptake
through the roots. Pioneer vegetation is found on rocky outcrops
with the bromeliads Brocchinia, Lindmania and Tillandsia being
frequently observed (Schubert and Huber 1989).
An important formation in the lower altitudes close to the
rivers and shallow valley bottoms of the Karuai, Apanwao and
Yuruaní basins, are the seasonally flooded palm savannas,
or "morichales", which are dominated by the "moriche"
palm Mauritia flexuosa. A species rich herb layer of grasses,
sedges and other plants is found with in these formations (Huber
1995).
Some 9400 species of higher plants have been recorded from
the Venezuelan Guayana, of which 2322 are registered from the
tepuis. This includes more than 700 species of orchid. The flora
is highly endemic with 2 endemic families (Tepuianthaceae and
Sacciofoliaceae), and 23 unique genera including Quelchia, Achnopogon
and Chimantea of the Composite family, the Connelia bromeliads,
the Tepuia heaths, the melastome Mallophyton, and Coryphothamnus
of the bedstraw family. At the species level approximately 33%
of the tepui species are endemic to the region with 99 species
endemic to Chimantá alone (Huber 1995).
The fauna is yet to be thoroughly catalogued
Animal life is generally scarce all over the park and in all
habitats, perhaps because of the extremely nutrient poor soils,
which are unable to support a large biomass (Schubert and Huber
1990). In addition, there are relatively much fewer studies
of animals than there are of plants, and thus our knowledge
remains sketchy.
Reptiles and amphibians are poorly known. Amongst the frogs
there is an endemic genus Oreophrynella with several species
on the summits of the tepuis.
Some 536 bird species have been recorded from the park (Goodwin
and Salas 1997). Of these, 42 are endemic to the tepui region.
Examples include the Roraiman Nightjar Caprimulgus whitleyi,
which is restricted to a few mountains in the south-east of
the park, or the Tepui Tinamou Crypturellus ptaritepuiensis
which is known from only two mountains within the park and has
not been recorded for two decades.
Some 118 species of mammal have been recorded, but a further
92 are expected to occur (Ochoa et al. 1993). One of the few
endemics is a small rodent Podoxymys roraimae from the summit
of Roraima.
The park, being a large, relatively intact area, is important
for the survival of tropical animals which are naturally found
at very low densities and are elsewhere threatened with extincion.
Thus, it is a refuge for large mammals such as puma Felis concolor,
jaguar Panthera onca, tapir Tapirus terrestris, giant anteater
Myrmecophaga tridactyla and giant armadillo Priodontes maximus.
Likewise, avain top predators, like the legendary Harpy Eagle
Harpia harpija, are also still to be found within the park.
Much more research is still needed in order to discover and
classify the full range of species found within the park, let
alone to truly understand the complex interrelationships of
these basic elements and therefore the ecology of the area.
This reflection has prompted entomologist Paul Spangler to comment
of the tepui flora and fauna that "many of the experts
who will study and classify these materials are not yet born"
(in George 1989).
The Pemón: traditional inhabitants
of Canaima
The traditional inhabitants of the south-east of Venezuela,
including Canaima National Park, are the Pemón indigenous
people, part of the Carib linguistic group. Their entire population
approaches 20,000, with about three quarters of these within
the national park.
The date of first occupation of the Gran Sabana is not known,
but the Pemón are thought to have immigrated into the
region some 200 years ago (Thomas 1980), although there are
archeological remains of human settlements which date back 9000
years (Schubert and Huber 1989). Perhaps this 'late colonisation'
of the Gran Sabana is a function of its poor soils: there is
certainly some evidence to suggest that low productivity is
responsible for the relatively low population density of its
present day inhabitants in relation to the indigenous inhabitants
of, for example, the Amazonian lowlands (Huber and Zent 1995).
Despite this short history of settlement, the Pemón have
an intimate relationship with their landscape environment. The
names of rock formations, waterfalls, rapids, lakes and streams
all have their origins described in myth. Some of these names
date from the time of the culture heroes; some from other mythological
sequences (Thomas 1982).
In particular, the Pemón relationship with the tepuis
(actually the Pemón denomination of "table mountain")
is complex and profound. The tepuis are sacred mountains for
the Pemón. They are the "guardians of the savanna"
where the "Mawari" - 'spirits in the form of men who
may steal the souls of the living' (Thomas 1982) - make their
home, and for this reason they are not to be ascended according
to the norms and traditions of Pemón society. Only in
the last two decades, with the increase in visits from tourists,
have some Pemón begun to disregard these traditional
beliefs by taking groups of hikers to some of the more accessible
tepuis, such as Roraima, Matawi (Kukenan) and Auyantepuy.
The traditional subsistence activities of the Pemón
are swidden agriculture, hunting and fishing. Today there is
increasingly more work to be found in mining and tourism. The
settlement pattern of the Pemón has changed since the
Catholic missions arrived at the beginning of this century.
Formerly living in disperse communities along watercourses (Thomas
1980), they now tend to concentrate in larger groups of 100-2000
people. The new road through the Gran Sabana has also attracted
larger settlements. This concentration has brought about many
changes in lifestyle, some of which affect their relationship
with the environment. The traditional swidden plots, for example,
once sited only on the richer, more alkaline diabase outcrops
where forest regeneration is apt to be swift, are now often
cut on poorer acidic soils. The result is that in some areas
forest is being lost to secondary scrub or savanna (Fölster
1995).
The formation of savanna is also accelerated by the traditional
practice of burning amongst the Pemón. Burning is practised
for a number of sociocultural reasons including communication,
maintaining paths clear, eliminating dangerous animals (mostly
rattlesnakes), hunting, removing weeds, stimulating new growth
of pasture for grazing, and - more recently -as a protest against
unpopular management decisions.
Although burning is more frequent in savanna, fire often reaches
forest, shrublands or scrub. Where there is extensive burning
of this type of vegetation, the poor soils impede regeneration
and a savanna or secondary scrub results (Fölster 1995).
According to some Pemón, burning is today practised
with less awareness of its environmental consequences than in
the past. The cultural aspects of burning in the Pemón
have not been studied, but it would be interesting to ascertain
the extent to which burning is influenced by the effects of
transculturation which has occurred since the 1930s.
Management: reconciling local needs with conservation
goals
The Canaima National Park was created in order to safeguard
the geological, biological and cultural values described above,
but its major economic importance has been the production of
water for the Guri Dam, which provides some 77% of the nation's
electricity.
There were no management activities until 1981, when EDELCA
a government electricity company, began a fire-fighting programme.
Only in 1990 did the park receive its first park warden, and
it remained with only one staff member until 1992 when eleven
more staff were assigned and a Zoning and Use Plan for the Eastern
Sector was approved.
Thirty-five years after the creation of Canaima National Park,
the area continues to be managed on a shoestring budget: the
operational management allocation for the Eastern Sector during
1996 was $1,171. Although the conditions for staff have improved
in the last five years, the budget does not cover even the most
basic management necessities: for example, the Gran Sabana has
one vehicle in poor condition and there is no radio system.
The Western Sector of the park is still lacking a Zoning and
Use Plan.
Active park management has become more of a necessity in recent
years given the growing threats to Canaima National Park. These
threats have been analysed in participatory rural appraisal
(PRA) run by a non-governmentl organisation together with several
Pemón communities and parks agency personnel. A resume
of threats is shown in Table 1.
The main pressures on the park come from two sources. On one
hand the demands of the Pemón population resident in
the park have increased. The Pemón population has quintupled
over the last twenty years, and there is clearly a demographic
effect of sheer numbers, which has brought about increasing
demands on the parks natural resources. However, the situation
is more complex, as changes in settlement pattern have led to
new land-use regimes and changes in resource consumption. The
best management approach must surely be found in adjusting to
recent patterns of resource use by addressing the underlying
causes of current resource use and identifying ways in which
resources can be more sustainably used, rather than prohibiting
undesirable activities.
On the other hand the tourism industry, which almost doubled
between 1991 and 1995, continues to develop within the park
without adequate planning control. As the Pemón have
become more dependent on income generated from tourism, the
problem of tourism management has increased, as have its environmental
and cultural impacts. Two urgent priorities are to develop management
guidelines for tourism in the national park, and to strengthen
the capacity of the Pemón to manage and take advantage
of tourism in a way compatible with the conservation objectives
of the area.
In addition to this is the latent threat of gold and diamond
mining. Mining is one of the major activities in the lands adjacent
to the park, and it is well known that the park itself has considerable
mineral wealth. Although mining is currently prohibited, there
have been sudden illegal 'booms' in, for example, the Kamarata
Valley in 1994. The physical presence of mining operations on
the park's borders provides a constant reminder to the park's
inhabitants of what may be obtained from their lands in the
short-term. With government policy now aimed at promoting mining
throughout the region, the park will require increased vigilance
to safeguard its natural resources over its 3 million hectare
extent.
One particular project which is shortly to be realised is the
construction of a high-tension powerline through the national
park in order to supply electricity to mining operations to
the north and south of the park. Although the project is opposed
by local inhabitants and considered unwise by conservation scientists,
it seems likely to succeed due to the powerful lobby whose interests
it serves.
With moves to open Venezuelan protected areas to mining already
under way, perhaps the legend of El Dorado will finally come
true in the Canaima National Park as mining proponents would
wish. However, standing in this, one of the world's last remote
wildlands, surrounded by vistas of table mountains, one cannot
help but feel that the riches conserved by Canaima National
Park are worth incalculably more than all the gold or diamonds
that can be extracted from its sub-soil. Hopefully, the efforts
of the many individuals and organisations dedicated to conserving
Canaima National Park will ensure that future generations will
not blame us for having lost the "Lost World".
Originally published as: Sharpe, Christopher J and Rodriguez,
Iokiñe (1997) Discovering the Lost World: Canaima National
Park and World Heritage Site, Venezuela. The George Wright Forum
14 (3): 15-23. The authors have also provided an Update.
References
Briceño, H., C. Schubert and J. Paolini. (1990). Tablemountain
geology and surficial geochemistry: Chamantá Massif,
Venezuelan Guayana Shield. Journal of South American Earth Sciences
3: 179194.
Folster, H. (1995). Local Population Concentrations in the
Venezuelan Guayana and the Breakdown of Traditional Swidden
Agriculture. Pp. 65-78 in: Nature and Human Ecology in the Neotropics.
Eds: D. H. Heinen, J. J. San José and H. Caballero Arias.
Caracas, Venezuela. Scientia Guaianae No.5.
George, U. (1989). Venezuela's Islands in Time. National Graphical
Magazine. May 1989: 526-561.
Goodwin, M. L. and V. Salas (1997). Lista de las Aves del Parque
Nacional Canaima. Caracas, Venezuela. Sociedad Conservacionista
Audubon de Venezuela. 56 pp.
Huber, O. (1995). Vegetation. Pp. 97-160 in: Flora of the Venezuelan
Guayana. Volume 1: Introduction. Eds: P. E. Berry, B. K. Holst
and K. Yatskievych. Portland, Oregon, USA. Missouri Botanical
Garden & Timber Press.
Huber, O. and S. Zent (1995). Indigenous People and Vegetation
in the Venezuelan Guayana: Some ecological considerations. Pp
3764 in: Nature and Human Ecology in the Neotropics. Eds: D.
H. Heinen, J. J. San José and H. Caballero Arias. Caracas,
Venezuela. Scientia Guaianae No.5.
Ochoa G., J., C. Molina and S. Giner. (1993). Inventario y
estudio comunitario de los mamíferos del Parque Nacional
Canaima, con una lista de las especies registradas para la Guayana
Venezolana. Acta Científica Venezolana 44: 245262.
Picón, G. (1995). Rare and Endemic Plant Species of
the Venezuelan Gran Sabana. M.Sc. Thesis. St. Louis, Missouri,
USA, University of MissouriSt. Louis: 100 pp.
Rodríguez, I. (1996). Evaluation of Threats in the Eastern
Sector of the Canaima National Park. Caracas, Venezuela. EcoNatura
Technical Report.
Schubert, C. and O. Huber (1990). The Gran Sabana: Panorama
of a Region. Caracas, Venezuela. Lagoven. 107 pp.
Thomas, D. J. (1980). Los Pemón. Pp. 302379 in: Los
Aborígenes de Venezuela. Volumen II Etnología
Contemporánea I. Eds: R. Lizarralde and H. Seijas. Caracas,
Venezuela. Fundación La Salle de Ciencias Naturales..
Thomas, D. J. (1982). Order Without Government. The Society
of the Pemon Indians of Venezuela. Urbana, Illinois, USA. University
of Illinois Press.
Park Component/Threat
Tepuis/Tourism: accumulation of garbage, faecal pollution,
extraction of flora, extraction of crystals, introdcution
of exotic plant species, deforestation for firewood, burning
to clear trails
Rivers and waterfalls/Tourism: faecal pollution.
Mining: pollution
Deforestation: flow reduction
Burning & wildfires
Palm savannas (morichales)/Overexploitation of Mauritia palm
Burning & wildfires
Forests/Felling for agriculture
Wildfires
Mining (potential)
Fauna/Overhunting
Wildfires
Savanna/Wildfires
Tourism: opening of new trails, erosion
Pemón/Population increase
Increase in requirements
Loss of traditional knowledge
Change in settlement pattern
Management/Institutional weakness
Lack of management programmes
National government policy incompatible with conservation
and park management
Bureaucracy
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
The authors host the Birding
Venezuela website.
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