Severe manifestations of these effects are now visible from the rails of cruise ships, in the water and on the shores of Caribbean islands. These trends threaten the integrity of beaches and crystal-clear waters which attract tourists--seriously depressing the economies which might have benefitted from the tourism boon. Pollution from heavy coastal development and tourism is also a major contributor to the degradation of water resources and contributes to the destruction of coral reefs--one of the most endangered ecosystems on the earth. The pollution which threatens fish populations and marine life, also contribute to public health concerns ashore. The worsening of water pollution in the Caribbean can partially be attributed to increased cruise ship traffic. Environmental concerns stemming from cruise ship waste disposal already pose an economic drain to Caribbean nations as increasing pollution levels discourage exploitation of the islands' comparative advantage--natural beauty--which translates into $7 billion annually in tourism.
In summary, over-exploitation and pollution of coastal areas and water resources in the Caribbean stem from business interests, wealthy consumers, the growing number of coastal poor and governments attempts to balance conflicting development goals. This paper will argue that careful planning for "eco-development," that involves environmentally-sound parallel development initiatives, could reverse the negative effects on the sea trade expansion, improve social infrastructure and create sustained economic opportunity for struggling Caribbean economies.
Some of the pollution occurs because a proportion of the ship-generated waste (treated or untreated) is discharged (legally or illegally) into international waters and carried by strong currents throughout the Caribbean and the Antilles. Other pollution can be attributed to illegal discharge within harbors and coastal areas.
The coastal areas most polluted in the Caribbean are also major habitats for marine growth and animals which are reliant on vulnerable coastal mangroves, estuaries and coral reefs. Regardless of strong currents, if the levels of pollution were to significantly increase in the central basins of the Caribbean, the pollution would cause long-term degenerating effects.
A tremendous amount of the Caribbean's biodiversity of marine life exists in the coral reef areas. The Caribbean has an estimated 9 percent of total global reef reserves. These coral reefs are a primary draw for tourism, combined with the appealing crystal-clear waters and the many species of tropic coral and exotic fish. In fact, some cruise lines offer side trips ashore of Caribbean islands bringing visitors to coral reef reserves and museums. Environmentalists have long suspected that the discharge of waste material is detrimental to marine life. It is thus alarming that the Caribbean also claims the world's highest density of ocean cruises and coastal tourism. Ironically, the pollution levels caused by the cruise ship industry could degrade the reef structure and undermine the sustainability of tourism in the area.
Pollution problems stem from cruise ships and coastal developments are compounded by soil erosion and low water circulation, both of which significantly contribute to coral reef degradation and the loss of marine life. Evidence of the multiple sources of pollution are seen where severe damage to coral reef appears off the coasts of Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica, countries with high rates of deforestation, population growth and poverty. Furthermore, the prevention of excessive pollution is considered a growing public health matter as the high prevalence of disease can be attributed to polluted water sources.
Pollution control for the cruise ship industry is regulated by the MARPOL Protocol, an international convention for the prevention of marine pollution generated from all ships. Ocean dumping of waste is controlled by the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Materials. The resultant regulations of these international conventions contain provisions to allow ships to dispose of shredded glass and tins and treated food and human waste by discharging the to the sea.
Disposal is restricted by location and type of waste. The Wider Caribbean is designated as a "Special Area" in MARPOL 73/78, Annex V, making discharge requirements for the region restricted due to special oceanographic conditions, ecological considerations and the particular characteristics of regional shipping traffic. Annex V also includes specific provisions prohibiting the disposal of any plastic products. Although many cruise ship lines are legally obligated to comply with these conventions, it is interesting to note that the Caribbean nations themselves are largely not signatory nor contracting parties to the protocol.
International conventions on marine pollution have been in place for decades. Nevertheless, non-governmental actors, environmental organizations, and even some cruise ship companies are only now increasingly concerned about the poor management and disposal of cruise ship-generated waste. Environmental interest groups are investigating the growing pollution problems which stem from the sea trade industry. Special interest groups are engaging policymakers to gain support to protect the coral reefs, and the sea trade industry itself has put environmental issues on the agenda at their annual association meetings.
Meanwhile, cruise ship passengers are also recognizing that their attractive, modern and efficient vacation voyage may entail the dumping of unwanted baggage along the way, in the form of illegal discharge of waste into the ocean. A recent suit against Princess Cruises of Great Britain resulted in a $250,000 award to cruise passengers who witnessed and video-taped a trail of plastic garbage bags dumped into the sea. Along with increased attention to environmental concerns, this suit may put pressure on the cruise ship industry to improve its waste management standards.
A noteworthy trend is emerging among Caribbean nations, where the governments themselves are beginning to recognize the deleterious effects of destroying pristine marine ecosystems. The Cayman Island Government is the first to assess severe fines on cruise lines which do not adhere to waste disposal requirements or commit other "marine environmental offenses in Cayman waters." Collectively the various constituencies involved in cruise management and pollution control issues are beginning to address the problems and work to improve water quality in the Caribbean.
Current methods for the treating and disposal of cruise ship-generated waste are limited. The procedures are categorized below: Aboard, separation and recycling is fundamental to any waste management program. Cruise ship supplies contain a considerable volume of disposable items: serving utensils, plastic glasses, bottles and tins. These must be separated by hand and by machines.
Maceration, food waste aboard cruise ships is abundant, yet pose fewer environmental concerns than metals or plastics because organic matter is easier to biodegrade. Sorting of plastics and other non-organic substances must be conducted prior to pulp processor maceration and discharge.
Incineration products are being tested on some ships. Experimentation is also being conducted for co-generation incinerators which can harness energy from the burning process. Incineration, however, can cause burning to the eyes, headaches, and respiratory disturbances among passengers, crew persons and anyone who might be subject to the air emission. The ash must still be treated and disposed.
Some thought is being given to reassess the types of products used on cruise ships--food products, containers, serving equipment and fuels. Using recycling and reusable containers are also a viable alternative.
All these options are subject to the human factor--mistakes and management's lack of attention. There are no real incentives, other than public opinion, to spur further research and development for these or other alternative methods of cruise ship waste management and pollution controls. However, as a counter incentive for dumping, fines for non-compliance to disposal regulations may prove a significant expense to a cost-conscious industry.
Aboard or ashore, any strategy for dealing with cruise ship waste and pollution must be subject to stringent oversight from a mandated regulatory authority. The U.S. Coast Guard is playing an increased role in the effort to enforce the MARPOL Convention. Environmental organizations and governments in the Caribbean are now developing the capacity to monitor harbors, coastal areas and port facilities for marine-related pollution. To be sure, there is pressure on some segments of the cruise ship industry to respond to the environmental challenges.
Another potential concern to Caribbean governments is that current lax marine environmental standards will open the door for transport and discharge of toxic waste from other sources. Evidence of this indiscrete activity has appeared in ocean areas near Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Existing bilateral agreements, notably the Basel Convention, exist to deter the transport of noxious wastes and handle hazardous elements in an environmentally sound manner. Yet the implementation of these agreements will require attention and resources to ensure that they are strictly adhered to.
Marine pollution is created by small as well as large vessels. For instance, a current study is underway which seeks to identify the extent to which toxicity of boat hulls which use antifoulants in marine paints (including chemicals such as tributyl tin TBT) which are used to prevent bioaccumulation) will negatively impact marine life. Larger ships use several chemicals in ship building and repair. Most of these activities are highly concentrated in commercial port facilities and can cause complete loss to surrounding marine life.
Other tourist facilities increase pollution levels and create more public health problems, ultimately jeopardizing the future of tourism overall. For example, hotels in Jamaica and the Bahamas have recently been fined for release of high fecal pollution and discouraged tourism for a short time.
Considerable scientific research will be necessary to understand and counter the environmental effects of increased pollution in Caribbean waters and on the islands. Non-governmental organizations, the private sector, international organizations and governments will rely on these studies to develop and implement long-term policies to protect these vital water resources and coastal ecologies.
Nations such as the Bahamas are entertaining policies to strengthen the country's attractiveness for tourism. An often neglected fact is that increasing tourist appeal partially means improvements in the living conditions and the adequate management of sewage and solid waste for local residents and businesses. Already, the construction sector has positively benefitted from the expansion of several port and airport facilities. This has resulted in some public investment for reliable power, water and roads to several islands, expenditures which provide continued economic relevance.
Although at-a-glance, these trends may be some of the most constructive signs of eco-development, ecology generally does not combine well with tourism. All forms of tourism contribute to increased levels of pollution and degradation and can contribute to the destruction of wildlife and to cultural erosion. Expansion in tourist facilities must be sensitive to the carrying capacity of the land and marine areas, especially in coastal areas of the Caribbean where it has earlier been argued that degradation can have irreversible and broad reaching effects.
The fallacy of shore-side development is challenged by some journalists, tourism policy makers and socio-economic analysts. The impact of cruise tourism is largely felt in the informal sector. Artisan crafts and domestic treasures are often trivialized and sold below market prices. Inexpensive products are increasingly manufactured for the tourism industry, undermining the cultural value of traditional products. It is also significant to note that employment for native people from the cruise industry in minimal, while the rate of people entering the work force is increasing. Therefore, formal employment figures are not positively enhanced by the cruise industry.
Despite the costs to the environment, some nations such as Brazil have opened its doors to tourism. An outspoken tourism advocate and Brazil's Minister of Tourism, Silvho Magahaes Barros, states, "Ecotourism represents an opportunity for industry to reconcile conservation and profits...It is inevitable."
For the Caribbean, and the developing nations of Central and South America, tourism and the highly-touted eco-tourism industry present real opportunities to exploit a comparative advantage, attract much-needed foreign investment and spur entrepreneurial development. Yet, the original vision of ecotourism has begun to erode primarily with the reality of masstourism. In spite of preservation efforts, fish resources are depleted, wildlife is hunted, and native civilizations and communities are encroached upon.
If a country conducts significant commercial trade, options for taxation on transportation facilities are more readily available. Brazil, for example, charges 130% social tax for cargo ships. If invested properly this is a significant boost to development and maintenance of waterways--although cargo associations argue that the cost of doing business is largely prohibitive. Taxation issues in general are now being negotiated among cruise ship companies and port facilities. A controversial per person charge is currently being negotiated between cruise lines and the City of Miami. If not satisfactorily reconciled, however, the cruise ship companies have threatened to relocate a major cruise center from Miami to Fort Lauderdale where similar costs are not currently levied. (The leverage of the industry due to its size and financial impact is evidently considerable).
In port cities and embarkation points throughout the Caribbean there is also a competition for access to water resources. Cruise ships must use a large quantity of fresh water to process treated wastes. The amount and availability of drinking water and water used in a sanitary procedure to dispose of human waste could be a literal "drain" for some Caribbean nations, especially those with more arid climates which are subject to periods of water scarcity. Parallel development plans can transform technology to address the need for quality and accessible potable water supplies in the Caribbean. The application of existing low-tech, low-cost and high-capacity waste treatment should be explored, otherwise inadequate storage and improper management may make zero discharge a zero-sum scenario.
Eco-development, where ecological management and development are considered as mutual goals, is a more sensible approach and can provide revenue for preservation and conservation projects. In some Caribbean countries, creative financing programs are currently being explored. Debt-for-nature swaps, where part of foreign debt is converted to local currency bonds to fund conservation efforts, may prove to be a viable model. If successful, eco-development activities could generate the resources necessary to counter public health concerns and improve the geographic distribution of other social services among people of the various islands.
Controlling pollution in the Caribbean will be difficult. However, protecting coastal waters from pollution involves the activation of some relatively simple policies. The economic benefits of conserving oceans, harbors, coastal areas and reefs will likely outweigh the costs of conservation.
Public health standards regulating sewage and discharge must be upgraded and enforcement, strengthened. Investment in control, as well as a commitment to regulate industrial and municipal discharge must also be made.
The nations of the Caribbean must work together in cooperation with supporting national and international organizations to prevent ship-generated waste and pollution. The United Nations Environment Programme's Regional Seas Programme, established in 1974, should be revitalized and serve as a mechanism for Caribbean nations to identify eco-development goals for the protection a vital shared resource. Constructive relationships can also be forged in coordination with the Caribbean Environmental Program which is working to establish improved responses to pollution problems and execute wide-spread public environmental awareness programs.
An eco-development model for the Caribbean must also involve, in a central role, local Caribbean communities and community-based organizations. Unless the people who have traditionally relied on the coastline and other Caribbean eco-systems are part of the overall development plan, the expansion of tourism can lead to broader environmental and social problems; the exploitation of local people, further degradation of the environment, rising consumerism, and expansion of the gap between rich and poor.
Parallel development plans which address important sectoral needs within a country must be formulated in a comprehensive manner and when possible, throughout the Caribbean. Infrastructure development for the nations of the Caribbean is much needed and can be combined with tourism expansion initiatives. Grassroots mobilization, application of ecological principals, environmental regulation by government and the voice of international groups could help reconcile the current problems of pollution and ill-conceived development in the Caribbean. Combined efforts by these groups could challenge the reluctant cruise ship industry to take a greater role in pollution control rather than resting on its strength and mobility, and the general lack of enforcement for the environmentally-sound management of wastes.
In summary, the dilemma of increased cruise ship revenues and increased pollution problems can be characterized as a problem of incentives, social controls, and the ability to handle complex economic restructuring. Caribbean countries share a valuable natural resource, the Caribbean Basin. Wide-range commitments to control cruise ship pollution and maintain water quality must be agreed upon by the people of the Caribbean nations and supported by the European Community and the United States--registered homes to the world's major cruise lines. Major international agencies such as the United Nations, the World Bank, the United States Agency for International Development, as well as international donors and non-governmental environmental organization, must take collective responsibility to support pollution control, while respecting the autonomy of Caribbean nations to make their own development decisions. A careful and participatory approach to pollution control, taking into account the concerns expressed by environmental groups, private industry, governments and the nations' people will support viable and sustainable eco-development in the Caribbean.
The author can be reached via email at Macondo4@ix.netcom.com or Macondo4@aol.com.
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